1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

The Birth of a New Society

The clash of Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans produced a new society in both North and South America. Columbus’ voyage started a long chain of events that led to the decline of Native Americans, introduction of new plants and animals, and the forceful removal of millions of Africans. The story of the United States of America began as these three worlds converged.

In 1607, a group of English settlers arrived in Jamestown, Virginia as part of a joint-stock company called the Virginia Company. Like Columbus, these English settlers encountered many indigenous tribes which made up what is commonly referred to as the Powhatan Nation. 

The English colony at Jamestown had a complex and often tense relationship with the Native American groups that lived in the region. From the time of its founding, the Jamestown colony was in contact with a number of Native American groups. These interactions were marked by a mixture of cooperation and conflict, as the English colonists sought to establish themselves in the region and the Native Americans sought to protect their lands and way of life.

One of the main sources of tension between the Jamestown colony and Native Americans was the English desire to acquire land. The English colonists saw the land in the region as a valuable resource, and they were eager to expand their settlements and gain access to resources such as timber, tobacco, and fur. Native Americans, however, saw the land as a source of spiritual and cultural significance, and they resisted European efforts to take control of it.

Despite these tensions, there were also instances of cooperation and trade between the Jamestown colony and Native American groups. For example, the English colonists learned how to grow corn and other crops from Native Americans, and they traded goods such as iron tools and firearms with Native American groups. These interactions helped to shape the cultural and social fabric of the region and laid the foundations for future relationships between Europeans and Native Americans in the Americas.

Theodor de Bry, “Negotiating Peace With the Indians,” 1634, Virginia Historical Society.

Native American Trade with Europeans 

Most Europeans looked down on Native Americans and saw them as inferior people who could be exploited for economic gain, converted to Christianity, and used as military allies. However, Native Americans were not passive victims of geopolitical forces beyond their control. As long as they remained healthy, they held their own in early exchanges. What they desired most was peaceful trade. 

In fact, French explorers recorded that Natives waved from shore, urging the Europeans to exchange metal items for beaver skins. The Natives did not perceive themselves as at a disadvantage in these proceedings. They thought it was crazy that the English would give them 20 knives for one beaver skin.  

Over time, cooperative encounters between Indians and Europeans became less frequent. English planters cleared the forests and fenced the fields, radically altering the ecological systems on which Indians depended. Natives discovered that the objects they desired from Europeans brought them into debt. To pay for these goods they hunted more aggressively and even further reduced the population of fur-bearing mammals. Natives grew dependent on trade for guns and ammunition and learned that wars would lead to a suspension of normal trade. 

Cultural Differences

One of the most significant differences between European and Native American worldviews was in the area of religion. European settlers generally practiced Christianity, a monotheistic religion, while Native Americans had a wide variety of religious beliefs and practices. These differences in religion often led to misunderstandings and conflicts between the two groups.

There were also significant differences between European and Native American views on gender roles and family. European societies were generally more hierarchical, with men holding a higher status than women, while Native American societies tended to be more egalitarian, with both men and women holding important roles in their communities.

In terms of land use, Europeans and Native Americans had very different views on how land should be used and managed. Europeans generally believed in private property and saw land as a commodity that could be bought and sold, while Native Americans tended to view land as a source of spiritual and cultural significance and often had a more communal approach to its use.

However, it is important to note that Native Americans were incredibly diverse, with hundreds of different languages and cultures that also varied based on region and climate. It is impossible to generalize anything to represent all Native Americans.

Despite these misunderstandings, however, over time, Europeans and Native Americans did adopt some useful aspects of each other's culture. For example, Native Americans introduced Europeans to a number of new foods, such as corn, beans, and squash, which became important staples in the European diet. 

Europeans, in turn, introduced Native Americans to new technologies, such as iron tools and guns, which had a significant impact on the way that Native Americans lived and interacted with the environment.

European Encroachment

As European colonization of the Americas increased, Native Americans faced significant challenges in defending and maintaining their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations. European encroachments on Native American lands and demands on their labor often threatened these aspects of Native American life, and Native Americans sought to protect them through a variety of means.

One of the primary ways that Native Americans sought to defend their interests was through diplomatic negotiations. Many Native American groups tried to negotiate treaties and other agreements with European powers in order to protect their lands and rights. However, these negotiations often proved difficult, as Europeans often did not respect Native American sovereignty or fully understand their perspectives and concerns.

In addition to diplomatic negotiations, Native Americans also resisted European encroachments through military action. Many Native American groups fought against European powers in order to defend their lands and way of life. While some Native American groups were able to achieve temporary victories, they were often ultimately unable to prevent the loss of their lands and the disruption of their communities.

Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated. This debate was influenced by a variety of factors, including religious beliefs, cultural values, and evolving ideas about race.

One of the main issues that arose in this debate was the question of how non-Europeans should be treated in relation to European colonial powers. Some European leaders argued that non-Europeans should be treated as equals and granted the same rights and privileges as Europeans. Others, however, argued that non-Europeans were inferior to Europeans and should be subjugated and controlled.

In order to justify the subjugation of Native Americans and Africans, some European leaders developed religious, cultural, and racial justifications for their actions. For example, some European leaders argued that it was their religious duty to convert non-Europeans to Christianity, while others claimed that non-Europeans were inferior and needed to be civilized by Europeans. These justifications were often used to justify the exploitation of non-European labor and resources, as well as the conquest and colonization of non-European lands.

European Diseases

The spread of European diseases had a significant impact on Native American populations. Many Native American communities had not been exposed to the diseases that were common in Europe, and as a result, they had little or no immunity to these diseases. When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they brought with them diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which spread rapidly through Native American communities, often with devastating consequences.

In many cases, entire communities were wiped out by diseases to which they had no immunity. This led to significant population decline, as many Native Americans died from these diseases. The spread of European diseases also disrupted Native American societies and communities, as people were forced to flee or abandon their homes in order to escape the diseases.

Spanish Policy Towards Natives

One European who dissented from the views of most Europeans toward Native Americans was a Spanish priest named Bartolome de Las Casas. He had owned land and slaves in the West Indies and had fought in wars against the Indians, but eventually became an advocate for better treatment of the Indians. 

Las Casas became disillusioned with the treatment of Native Americans by European colonizers, and he began to speak out against the exploitation and mistreatment of Native Americans. He argued that Native Americans were entitled to the same rights and protections as Europeans, and he advocated for more humane treatment of Native Americans.

In the long term, he persuaded the Spanish king to institute the New Law of 1542. These laws ended indigenous slavery, halted forced native labor, and began to end the encomienda system, a Spanish labor system used in Spain's colonies which included forced labor of non-Christian indigenous peoples. 

However, despite these advances, the New Law was not always fully implemented, and Native Americans continued to face mistreatment and exploitation at the hands of European colonizers.