8.6 Newly Independent States After 1900

Israel

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict stems from a complex history of colonialism and displacement. For centuries, Palestinian Arabs constituted the majority in the region, alongside a smaller Jewish population. After World War I and the Ottoman Empire's collapse, Britain assumed control of Palestine, formalized by a League of Nations mandate in 1920.

After World War II, the British were forced to reassess their colonial empire in light of post-war realities including financial strain, local resistance, and international pressure. In the case of Palestine, the British officially announced their intention to end the Mandate and refer the question of Palestine's future to the United Nations. Meanwhile, Zionist leaders leveraged the recent memory of the Holocaust to argue for immediate action on establishing a Jewish state, presenting it as a moral imperative and solution to the refugee crisis of European Jewry.

On May 14, 1948, the British officially vacated the region and Israel declared independence the same day, with the US recognizing the state minutes later. Arab states rejected this and invaded the newly declared state of Israel. The new state's de facto borders were ultimately drawn as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War rather than the UN partition. The war resulted in the Nakba ("catastrophe"), forcibly displacing over 700,000 Palestinians, who became refugees in neighboring countries or within their homeland.

Since 1948, the region has endured multiple wars, ongoing occupation, and persistent conflict. Unresolved issues include Israeli settlements in occupied territories, Palestinian refugees' right of return, and security concerns. This situation illustrates how creating new states can lead to decades of tension and the challenges of reconciling competing national aspirations in shared territories.

Cambodia

Cambodia's tragic history stems from a complex interplay of colonial exploitation and Cold War geopolitics. After nearly a century of French colonial rule, Cambodia gained independence in 1953, but struggled with the political and economic legacy of colonialism. The power vacuum left by the French, coupled with regional instability due to the Vietnam War, led to political turmoil.

The rise of the Khmer Rouge, a communist group led by Pol Pot, was partly fueled by resentment against Western interference, including secret U.S. bombing campaigns in Cambodia during the Vietnam War. While the Khmer Rouge claimed to aim for a classless, agrarian society free from foreign influence, their regime (1975-1979) implemented brutally oppressive policies.

The Khmer Rouge's forced collectivization of farms and violent suppression of perceived opponents resulted in the Cambodian genocide, causing the deaths of approximately 1.5 to 2 million people. This tragedy was exacerbated by international inaction and the complex power dynamics of the Cold War era, illustrating the devastating long-term effects of colonialism and foreign intervention.

Pakistan

The partition of India and creation of Pakistan in 1947 were direct consequences of British colonial "divide and rule" policies, which exacerbated religious tensions. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocated for a separate Muslim state, fearing marginalization in a Hindu-majority India.

The hasty British withdrawal and poorly planned partition led to one of the largest forced migrations in history. As Muslims moved to Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs to India, communal violence erupted. The resulting humanitarian crisis claimed approximately two million lives and displaced 14 million people.

The arbitrary drawing of borders by departing colonial powers, without adequate consideration for ethnic, cultural, and economic realities, laid the foundation for ongoing conflicts in the region, including disputes over Kashmir. This situation illustrates the long-lasting impact of colonial policies on regional stability and human rights.

Economic Systems in the New States

Newly independent states grappled with the economic legacies of colonialism, often leading to state-led development models as attempts to assert economic sovereignty.

India

Indira Gandhi's economic policies, including the nationalization of key industries, were partly a reaction to colonial exploitation. While these policies aimed to reduce inequality and foreign economic control, they also led to inefficiencies and stunted growth. This illustrates the challenges faced by post-colonial nations in balancing economic independence with global economic realities.

Egypt

Gamal Abdel Nasser's economic policies in Egypt were shaped by anti-colonial sentiment and pan-Arab nationalism. His nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956 was a direct challenge to lingering Western economic control, leading to the Suez Crisis. While his policies aimed to modernize Egypt and reduce foreign influence, they also led to tensions with Western powers and economic challenges.

Tanzania

Julius Nyerere's policies in Tanzania, including the collectivization of agriculture (ujamaa) and emphasis on education, were influenced by both socialist ideals and a desire to overcome colonial-era inequalities. While universal education increased literacy rates, the economic policies had mixed results, highlighting the difficulties of rapid post-colonial development and the challenges of creating a unified national identity in artificially drawn colonial borders.

Sri Lanka

Sirimavo Bandaranaike's economic approach in Sri Lanka attempted to balance free enterprise with selective nationalization, aiming to address colonial-era economic disparities. Her policies reduced wealth inequality but also faced challenges in managing ethnic tensions exacerbated by colonial divide-and-rule strategies. The ongoing civil conflicts in Sri Lanka can be traced, in part, to the legacy of British colonial policies.

Migrations

Post-colonial migrations were often a direct result of colonial policies and the subsequent political and economic instabilities in newly independent states:

• South Asians to Britain: Many migrants were from former British colonies, reflecting ongoing economic ties and the legacy of empire. This migration pattern highlights the complex relationship between former colonial powers and their former subjects.

• Filipinos to the U.S.: Migration patterns were influenced by the American colonial period in the Philippines (1898-1946) and subsequent economic links. This illustrates how colonial relationships continue to shape global migration long after formal independence.

• Algerians to France: This migration stream was a direct consequence of French colonial rule in Algeria (1830-1962) and the violent war for independence. It reflects the ongoing economic and cultural ties between former colonies and colonial powers, as well as the human costs of decolonization.

These migration patterns reflect the complex, ongoing relationships between former colonial powers and their former colonies, as well as the economic disparities resulting from centuries of exploitation.

Source: Freemanpedia

REVIEW GAME: True or False

• The Indian National Congress, or INC, pushed hardest for the creation of a Muslim state by the partition of India
• Zionism was the idea that Indian Muslims deserved their own state
• The communist Khmer Rouge took over Cambodia, and their violent methods caused the Cambodian Genocide
• Indira Gandhi was for little governmental involvement in the economy
• Israeli-Palestinian conflicts have been continuing ever since the creation of Israel in 1948
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah led the Muslim League

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Answers: 

1. False: it was the Muslim League
2. False: it was the idea that Jews deserved their own state
3. True
4. False: she essentially destroyed the private sector and heavily employed governmental control in the economy
5. True
6. • True